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The familial context of the torah: its significance for Christians today
Antonio Ammassari

 

The ancient laws of Israel with their codices and fundamental norms' have not come down to us within the framework of the history of David, of the reign of Solomon or of the description of a solemn Temple liturgy, but within the framework of the narrative books of the Pentateuch. Of these at least the first, Genesis, has a notably familial and sapiential character. It thus acts as a prologue to the four following books which tell how the a House of Jacob >> became a people, received the revelation of the Lord and the Covenant on Sinai, and set out on the journey through the desert to the Land.

This family framework is all the more significant when we consider that we have the redaction of the post-exilic period. Before this period it was already possible for the scribes of Israel and Ezra to compare their tradition with the great Mesopotamian codes derived from the traditions of Sumeria and Akkadia, or the more recent codes of Hammurabi 2 and Assyria.'

The framework of patriarchal narrative had a claim to historicity, a claim confirmed by archaeological research throughout the Middle East in recent decades.4 In this narrative the biblical milieu of the Torah in its family and sapiential aspects remains distinct from the traditional milieu of Mesopotamia which was generally linked to a reforming sovereign and to his court, as well as from the mythology of the dead in Egypt. At the judgment after death, these dead protested their innocence according to listed crimes and sins which have points of literary contact with the Mosaic precepts.5

Moreover, during the period in which Ezra promulgated the Torah, the personal and individual evolution of the former Jewish conception of collective responsibility cannot be denied. a What do you mean by repeating this proverb concerning the land of Israel, `The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge'? As I live, says the Lord God ... the soul that sins shall die. 7

The pluralistic development of the Jewish community is endless. In Jerusalem Ezra obtained the repudiation of Moabite and Ammonite wives in obedience to the ancient prohibition of marriage between the daughters of the Canaanites and the inhabitants of the Land.° He imposed it by a covenant,' albeit not without notable opposition?' Nehemiah had a written engagement drawn up according to an expiatory rite. He separated the people from the pagans by confirming the duty of bringing tithes to the Levites, the prohibition of work on the Sabbath and of mixed marriages." Moreover, the discoveries at Qumran prove the almost contemporary stipulation in a covenant of fidelity between the district of Damascus and another Jewish community calling itself « the House of the Torah ».12
Besides, the Torah, from the first stage of its written history, is known to us in a variety of traditions: Palestinian, Babylonian, Samaritan and Egyptian. All these have a very considerable cultural importance.13 They explain the successive differences in the Christian exegesis of the Church Fathers and, in a general way, the historical dynamism of Judaism and of Christianity at the beginning of our era.14
We refer, obviously, to synoptic differences. With the passing of the centuries each religious group would preserve exclusively or quasi exclusively some characteristic readings whereas at the same time other readings were adopted in other groups. The important thing for us to notice here is that the Torah within its post-exilic framework already possessed that family outlook which orthodox Judaism was to develop for two thousand years, and which was to make it so interesting and exemplary for Christians today.15

FAMILIAL CONTEXT OF DECALOGUE PROHIBITIONS

Let us consider, for example, those prohibitions of the Decalogue that are the most briefly formulated and the most closely preserved from development and from successive legal glosses.

I. « You shall not kill b: '6 Do not cause by your unjust behavior the death of another man or woman of your family or people." It happened that the sons of Jacob plotted together to kill Joseph their brother, but Reuben dissuaded them, saying: a Shed no blood. »18 The expression was used also in the Lord's pact with Noah: « Whosoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed. »13 It appears again in the declaration of the elders of °a city near the place where a hidden murder was supposed to have been committed: a Our hands did not shed this blood, neither did our eyes see it shed. u 2° Later on the presence of the judges with the elders was to make it clear that the state as well as the families" represented by the elders were concerned in the matter.

In patriarchal times the protection of life seems to have been entrusted to the father and to the Lord God, protector of the family as a avenger of blood »." Thus Reuben says to Jacob: a Slay my two sons if I do not bring him [Benjamin] back to you. » " However, the function of avenger could not entail the extirpation of the survivors; this is the principle invoked by the woman of Tekoa before David: « Pray let the king invoke the Lord your God, that the avenger of blood slay no more, and my son be not destroyed. »24 The boundless extension of vengeance propounded by the descendants of Cain" was limited by the Code of the Covenant which confined the lex talionis within a well-defined area." Successive legislation also formulated a casuistry which was intended to distinguish intentional and wilful homicide from less serious cases due to error or to accident." It attributed to Joshua the institution of cities of refuge for homicides.28
However, the prohibition to kill, against the background of Abel's fratricidal death29 and the sacrifice of Isaac prevented by the Lord,30 remained a familiar directive personally confirmed by the Lord that not even kings could violate.31

The discovery of the Decalogue and its revision in Deuteronomy, the prophetic invective of Hosea" and of Jeremiah, for example in the famous discourse foretelling the destruction of the Temple,33 confirm the constitutive significance of the covenant and the fundamental value of the law for Israel's existence.

Jesus interpreted the law by extending it to anger against a brother, verbal abuse, expressed contempt, inveterate hostility, legal disputes. Within the framework of the almost domestic relationship that characterized the common life of his first disciples, these applications seem perfectly legitimated.34

2. “You shall not commit adultery. u 35 The respect due to the neighbor and to his exclusive relationship with his wife, the delight of your eyes »," included the other accessory commandment: « You shall not covet your neighbour's wife. r> 37 The Lord intervened directly to protect the integrity of the wives of the patriarchs Isaac and Jacob, seduced by strangers to the family." Tamar, accused of adultery, risked being burnt by order of Judah her father-in-/aw." The patriarch Joseph was therefore right in considering adultery a great evil and in not wishing to fail before God because of the Egyptian wife of his employer and her insistent sollicitation.40

Aware of the profoundly familial aspect of the law, the Covenant Code does not provide for any public sanction or community prosecution for adultery. The laws promulgated subsequently established: « If a man commits adultery with the wife of his neighbour, both the adulterer and the adulteress shall be put to death. :>" The similar precept of Deuteronomy concludes: a So you shall purge the evil from Israel. »42

However, the most important factor of all was the sapiential teaching of the father and mother of the family: « Do not desire her beauty [the adventuress] in your heart D; « he who commits adultery has no sense »; he [the husband who has been betrayed by his wife] will not spare when he takes revenge. »43 The picture of the veiled and well-to-do woman who takes advantage of her husband's absence to seduce the unwary young man is rich in picturesque detail" developed throughout a long family tradition; the short proverbs also have their own power of expression, such as that which describes the impudence of the adulteress always ready to declare: o I have done no wrong. »45

The applications by the prophets of the image of adultery to Israel's sin against the Lord are well known, but Ezekiel brings this application to perfection in his description of the two sisters symbolic of Samaria and Jerusalem, and their relationship with the Assyrians, « desirab/e young men .46

Jesus rejected the customary stoning of the adulteress as a temptation to hypocrisy. He preferred a return to the moral imperative « do not sin again »." Moreover all that leads up to adultery is discouraged whether it involves eyes, hands, or feet, as well all designing thoughts.° James stigmatizes as adulterous those who are possessed by a spirit of covetousness 48 and who are not aware that friendship with the world is enmity with God." The aggadic sections of the Talmud and of the midrashim show that the trend towards deepening the moral and interior understanding of the law was widely prevalent in the Judaism of the time.51

3. « You shall not steal n" was the subject of the reproof made to the patriarchs by the Egyptian, steward of Joseph's house. They protested that they had brought the money for the corn taken previously and had had therefore no intention of stealing the gold and silver from the house of his lord." The possibility of theft among shepherds was already present in the negotiation between Jacob and Laban: « Every one that is not speckled and spotted among the goats and black among the lambs, if found with me, shall he counted stolen.” 54

The Code of the Covenant tends to limit private vengeance for theft: a thief breaking in at night can be killed, but if the sun has already risen there can be only claim for damages." In general, « do not men despise a thief if he steals to satisfy his appetite when he is hungry? And if he is caught, he will pay sevenfold; he will give all the goods of his house.” 56

The commandment was completed by that of « not coveting » the neighbor's house, his manservant, his maidservant, his ox, his ass or anything that is his," also his garments," fields° vines," treasures and perfumes," all the goods that the text describes as « desirable ».

The command not to steal, finally, forbade the abduction of persons, for example that of Joseph," understood from the Code of the Covenant as very serious and punishable by public executioner
Christianity adopted this commandment. Abduction is mentioned among the vices to be rejected" and in Peter's exhortation to the faithful." Jesus condemns theft and abduction.° He endures the dishonest practice of Judas the bursar of his community," but at the same time he urges them to be detached from possessions and considers their loss as a natural disaster: « Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust consume and where thieves break in and steal. »" James concludes: « Your riches have rotted and your garments are moth-eaten. Your gold and silver have rusted. »69

4. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour.." This is to be understood of the witness given in a court of law." « There are six things which the Lord hates, seven which are an abomination to him: . . a false witness who breathes out lies, and a man who sows discord among brothers. 2R ‹: He who speaks the truth gives honest evidence, but a false witness utters deceit. » 73 € A man who bears false witness against his neighbour is like a war club, or a sword, or a sharp arrow.» 74 «A false witness will not go unpunished, and he who utters lies will perish. »
A divine punishment seems to be anticipated here, or some form of vengeance incumbent on family justice; later the legislator will intervene against him who makes a false accusation of apostasy and will impose on him the same capital punishment that he intended to provoke by his sworn testimony.76

James urges bridling of the tongue," and in one of the most dramatic sections of his letter he illustrates the danger of an unbridled tongue: though only a small member it can stain the whole body; like a fire it can cause a blaze; it is an untamable beast, a restless and ineradicable evil, a reptile full of deadly poison, a brackish spring." It is better, therefore, according to the advice of Sirach, not to swear " than to risk falling under the judgment of the Lord.80

STYLE REFLECTING A MARRIAGE CONTRACT

The progressive order of the prohibitions quoted is that of the masoretic text, but the Codex Vaticanus of the Septuagint and other codices have a different tradition, one of sacerdotal origin.01 Here the first prohibition is: You shall not commit adultery », and the commandment « You shall not covet your neighbour's wife » is similarly anticipated with reference to « you shall not covet your neighbour's house P. In this tradition noted by Philo 82 the prohibitions relating to duties towards the neighbor were thus included in the MO laws protecting matrimony and conjugal fidelity. They should therefore be considered primarily with reference to that basic social unit, the individual family. On the other hand a positive command introduces these injunctions and indicates the line of transmission: a Honour your father and your mother. »" In Proverbs also, the parents were the channels of the precepts of wisdom: « Hear, my son, your father's instruction, and reject not your mother's teaching »;" do not plot with sinners to shed innocent blood." Thus there was a logical relationship between the list of prohibitions and the duty of honoring parents. Moreover it was through the parents that the necessary link was forged between minimal family unity and the family genealogy which was particularly related to the Lord and to the patriarchs, receivers of the blessing. Oral tradition is therefore right in its definition of the reward for the honor rendered to parents: « . that your days may be long in the land which the Lord your God gives you. » 86

I am the Lord your God

We are thus led by the internal logic of the Decalogue to consider the first commandments which are more directly concerned with the Lord. They are introduced by a solemn declaration by the Giver and reinforced by the revelation of his Name: a I am the Lord your God. >> 87 There is perhaps no stylistic parallel to illustrate this « action » of the Lord, this initiative of his towards Israel, as adequately as does the Aramaic nuptial formula: « She is my wife and I am her husband from this day and for ever. x " This is followed by the reciprocal obligations and prohibitions of the spouses stated and assumed by the husband in presence of the bride's father." Similarly in the Decalogue the Lord begins by declaring his identity, his claims on the « House of Jacob P, and proceeds to deduce the prohibitions:

« You shall have no other gods before me . . ; you shall not make for yourself a graven image or any likeness of anything ... ; you shall not bow down to them or serve them . . • ; you shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain. 9° It is as if he said: Do not despise my dignity as protector of your family by taking other protectors besides me; do not put images that gratify your own tastes in the place of the unspeakable presence of my glory: « You have seen for yourselves that I have talked with you from heaven. » " Finally, do not violate the intimacy of our relationship by an improper and profane use of my name.

The dynamism that both informs the Decalogue and expresses itself in the particular style of the Decalogue is therefore manifested in the recalling of the attention of those who received the revelation to the claims of its author, claims already expressed in his relationship with the fathers and in the benefits he has poured out. Thus from these claims the recipients may understand the justice of their accepting the commandments and the prohibitions that follow from them. This dynamism also informed the practice observed in the matrimonial relationships of the patriarchs: Jacob said to Laban, after having worked for him seven years: « Give me my wife that I may go in to her, for my time is completed. , 92

Remember the Sabbath

This kind of invitation to remember benefits received and to give concrete proofs of gratitude should also form the basis of the injunction of the Decalogue:
Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. t> 93 The sabbath day »„Chabbat?' could recall a well-known and precise benefit received: the interruption of forced labor in Egypt. Pharaoh said to Moses and Aaron: « . . . you make them [the sons of Israel] rest (yehishbatem) from their burdens. ,05 Pharaoh did not want to believe that it was the Lord, the God of the Hebrews who had met with them and commanded them to sacrifice in the desert.

Within the context of Exodus, therefore, the Sabbath has a precise meaning: it is the day of liberation to be observed as a weekly day of rest, hence separated from the ordinary days and sanctified as a feast." The commandment that in the Decalogue seems linked to gratitude is later sanctioned by the death of those who profane it and their exclusion from the people of Israel." Apart from this it was justified by motives of national history and also of the theology inherent in the repose of the Creator.]] Deuteronomy takes up the motives implicit in the original statement: « You shall remember that you were a servant in the land of Egypt, and the Lord your God brought you out thence with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God commanded you to keep the sabbath day. »100

If this theory is correct, if the Sabbath should, before all, recall the decisive intervention of the Lord in favor of his people, the exegesis of Jesus becomes convincing: « The sabbath was made for man »,"' with the examples taken from David 103 and the priests of the Temple,'" and Jesus' healing of the « children of Abraham ».1" The disciples of the Church of Jerusalem continued to observe the Sabbath I" as did Paul, wherever he happened to be.'" To the ancient day of rest an anticipated eschatological day of rest was added in commemoration of Jesus' resurrection, Sunday.'" Thus the Sabbath, while remaining an essentially Jewish feast, retained for Christians its value as a symbol of things to come,'" of the heavenly reality of the last days.'°] It was finally adopted as a festive or semi-festive day in many countries. This day has a power of sanctification for Israel quite apart from the community duty of prayer accompanied by readings from the Torah, the Prophets and the Psalms. In the Jewish quarter of every city in the world the mystery of God's Word issuing from his mouth continues through his chosen people to be unendingly efficacious. It continues in their total abstention from work, in the joy of children playing in the streets, in the spontaneous gathering and discussion outside the synagogue in the freedom of all the members of the family including the women who are not wearied by cooking.

Christians have good reason to believe that the Sabbath rest merges into that of Sunday in its affirmation of hope for the final entry of the faithful into God's rest.110

JESUS POSITION WITH REGARD TO THE TORAH

We have made precise references to the exegesis of Jesus and of his disciples on the commandments, and have sometimes pointed out the accordance of this exegesis with the literal text, with the ancient stages of its history and with the necessity of prophetic investigation of its moral demands. While conducting other biblical and New Testament research we have been forced also to a realization that the results of certain analyses of Jesus were convincing and correct. The fact that a valid rule of life (halakhah) can still be deduced from the gospels cannot be looked upon as a casual and unimportant fact. « Christ became a servant to the circumcised to show God's truthfulness.."[ His service and his support of the pious observers of the Law in Israel is always present through the gospels of the Church: a Scripture cannot be broken »;'" « until heaven and earth pass away, not an iota . . . will pass from the law >."This firm conviction of Jesus was to be followed by his protestation of not wishing to destroy the Law and hence of not wishing to abolish its authority."' The national and religious identity of Israel was thus safeguarded, and Jesus rendered both to the poor of Israel and to the masters of the Torah an objective and lasting exegetical service, submitted to the individual conscience. The difficulty experienced by Christians of Greek origin in recognizing Jesus as a servant of the circumcised, and the polemic exigencies of confrontation with their contemporaries the scribes and Pharisees, may have suggested the contents of the pericope in which Jesus affirms that he came to fulfil the Law.'" In my opinion we should have two parallel readings: one for Jews and Jewish Christians, as suggested by the prohibition of transgressing even the smallest commandment,"" the other for gentiles or Christians of gentile origin who are to have « joy and peace in believing so that by the power of the Holy Spirit you may abound in hope »."' Through the mercy of God the gentiles have been grafted onto the history of Israel and obedience to the Torah according to a family dimension concurrent with that typical of Judaism and conformed to its origins.

WISDOM TRADITIONS LINKED TO THE NAME

All the commandments revealed in the Decalogue were thus already present to the consciousness of the patriarchs. They were in a way anticipated in their family customs before being included by the Lord among the conditions of his covenant with Israel and related to his name. Their inclusion in the framework of the revelation of Sinai gave them a new force, a force which removed the sons of Israel from both the juridical tradition of the Mesopotamian sovereigns from whose territory Abraham had come, and from the Egyptian mythology drawn from the Book of the Dead.

We should however ask ourselves if this experience of revelation of the commandments in the name of the Lord does not point to a particular geographical area: to the east of the Gulf of Akaba, to the east of the Promised Land, where it is possible to locate the land of Midian, refuge of Moses and the « mountain of God »."" It is possible that there existed a wisdom and family milieu where it was the custom to respect the commandments because of the Name. There is a proof of this which is worth mentioning: « .. feed me with the food that is needful for me, lest I be full, and deny thee, and say, 'Who is the Lord?' or lest I be poor and steal, and profane the name of my God. » '" The writer describes himself as faithful to the Lord whom he knows through the sacred Tetragrammaton and concludes that he must abstain from theft out of respect for the Lord's name. The expression « to profane the Name », literally « to seize the Name >> (ve-tajasti Shem) has an archaic flavor when compared with that of Jeremiah, tofsei ha-Torah, which has the opposite positive meaning of « those who handle the Law »120

The author of the text prays thus: v . . put vanity far from me 121 and lying words. » 123 He knows that there could be a generation which curses the father and does not bless the mother, saying that she will see the lantern of her life extinguished in the heart of darkness.'" This vague punishment suggests an archaic age and milieu when compared with the command sanctioned by the Code of the Covenant: « He who curses his father or his mother shall be put to death. »134
We have here a sapiential source potentially parallel to and independent of that proposed in the book of Exodus. In effect the title of the proverbs attributes it to Ague, son of Jakeh "3 of the tribe of Massa which was of Ishmaelite origin."' Lemuel also, the king who had received counsel from his mother, belonged to this same tribe."' A cuneiform inscription of Tiglath-Pileser states that the members of a tribe of this name, together with others likewise recorded in the genealogy of Ishmael, were subjects of the king (744-727 B.C.).

A similar indication is contained in the prayer of Habakkuk: God came from Teman,128 and the Holy One from Mount Paten and the curtains of the land of Midian.129 The theophany is located in a region to the east of the Holy Land, famous for its sapiential tradition. It is linked to the stock of Abraham through Keturah and Ishmael'" and to Moses through the priest of Midian and his daughter Zipporah.?B' Moreover, the institution at least of judges in Israel has been traced back to the counsel of Jethro who came from a tribe of that region.132

To conclude: it is highly probable that through contact with the wisdom and family traditions linked to the Name, as in the proverbs of Ague, first Moses and then the people he led out of Egypt discovered their own vocation. They also discovered the concrete model of what was to distinguish their practice from the voluminous legal system of Mesopotamia, to withstand the refined civilization that developed on the banks of the Nile and to prepare themselves for the difficult confrontation with the inhabitants of the land of Canaan.

JEWISH HERITAGE OF VALUE FOR CHRISTIANS

At the end of this brief research into the origins and almost familial character of the Torah we would like to express the conviction that this cultural and spiritual heritage was effectively preserved and transmitted throughout the inevitable historical vicissitudes until the destruction of the Second Temple.'" Even in the Middle Ages Jews continued to meditate on the Torah and to profit from their experiences which can prove of great interest to the Christian community of the Church, a community which desires to return to the simplicity of its original institutions, to a spontaneous and immediate relationship with the Lord.

To the question: where is the most authentic expression of this family Judaism to be found, we could answer with James: a Moses has had in every city those who preach for he is read every sabbath in the synagogues. >> '" This expression then can be found not only in Rome, in the chief cities of Italy and Europe, in the United States and in Russia, but also in Athens, Constantinople, Teheran and in small towns almost unknown but very rich in cultural, linguistic and historical traditions. I would like to recall the little community of Urmia (Rizaieh) on the Turkish border of Iran. Here in 1968 the small Jewish community was still speaking the Aramaic dialect and was thus able to communicate with the local Nestorian and Chaldean Christians, themselves also heirs of an ancient and glorious community.

In contact with the synagogue liturgy, especially preparation for the Sabbath and the Sabbath morning, and in family hospitality, it is possible to discover the joyful, serene, eschatological and messianic tension of Israel's prayer. It is also possible to discover Israel's openness to friendship, to dialogue, and in the family setting to that gift of the spirit in which silence and cordiality witness to a mysterious presence of God and invite one to peace.

In a preceding study we supported the idea that the Torah was initially received by the primitive Christians of Jewish origin also in the Diaspora, as is proved by James's letter to the tribes of the dispersion.'" It is possible that events and historical contingencies hindered the permanent settlement of Christian groups in the East as they did later in the West among the Hellenized Jews who were to receive the preaching of Paul'" This does not however mean to say that the study of the Torah and its messianic significance was lost; this is proved by the existence of Jewish prayers of the Italian rite which, as we said in the study already mentioned, originate in the ancient traditions of Palestine.137

In the spirit therefore of the recent ecumenical council and of the spiritual tradition of St. Benedict, so close in certain aspects to that of Israel, we must give honor to all those who, in our time, are seeking God. We must also hold with deeply attentive faith to the family applications of the Torah and to the prayer of Israel which is, in its fundamental structure, ecumenical.

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Fr. Antonio Ammassari, who practised law before his ordination to the priesthood, is involved in biblical research with special reference to Jewish tradition. Besides articles in biblical periodicals, he has recently published La religione dei patriarchi and La resurrezione (Rome 1976). A third volume, Profilo biblico del matrimonio, is soon to appear.

1. For the most ancient norms brought to light by literarycriticism and form-criticism, see the article ndmos B 1 by W. Gutbrod in TWNT (Theotogisches Warterbuch zum Neuen Testament, G. Kittel, G. Friedrich, Stuttgart 1932) IV, pp. 1028-1031.
2. The Code of Hammurabi contained 282 paragraphs, besides a prologue and epilogue. See ANET (Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, J.B. Pritchard, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press 1969) pp. 163 D — 180 A.
3. See 5 The Middle Assyrian Laws e, ANET, pp. 180 B — 188 C.
4. E.A. Speiser uses this data in Genesis (The Anchor Bible). Garden City. N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964.
5. Ch. Maystre, Les declarations d'innocence (Livre des mons, chapitre 125), Cairo 1937. See ANET, pp. 34-36.
66 +I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate mc D (EL 20:5).
7. Ezek. 18:2-4.
8. Deut. 7:1-3; Ex. 34:16; Inv. 18:24-25.
9. Ezra 10:3-5.
10. Ezra 10:15.
11. Neh. 9:1-10:2; 13:1-28.
12. Art. olkos 2 by 0. Michel in TWNT V, pp. 123-124.
13. Sh. Talmon, a The Old Testament Text., P.R. Ackroyd and C:R. Evans, eds., The Cambridge History of the Bible, Landon 1970, pp. 159-199.
14. The reader is referred to two of my studies in: Antonio Ammassari, La Religione del patriarchs: studi biblici, Roma: Pontificia Universith Urbaniana/Citta Nuova Editrice, 1976, pp. 85-121, 221-231.
15. In the stories of Daniel, Esther and Tobit there is already evidence of religious observance of the Torah rooted in the family among the Jewsof the Diaspora (Dan. 1:8-16; Esth. 2:5-7; 4:13-16 Tob. 1:10-20).
16. Ex. 20:13 Deut. 5:17.
17. The equivalence between a woman e killed » and e dead as a result of injuries suffered » is in Judges 20:9-5. la Gen. 37:18, 22.
19. Gen. 9:6. Sec articles alma, ekchimnein by J. Behn in TWNT I, pp. 172-173; II, pp. 464466.
20. Deut. 21:7.
21. Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomie School, Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 234.
22. Gen. 48:16; Ps. 19:14; 78:35; Num. 35:19; Deut. 19:4-6.
23. Gem 42:37.
24. 2 Sam. 14:11.
25. Gen. 4:23-24.
26. Ex. 21:23-25.
27. Num. 35:16-34.
28. Josh. 20:1ff ; Deut. 19:2,7; Num. 35:11.
29. Gen. 4:8-15.
30. Gen. 22:10.
31. Recall the murder of Naboth by Ahab on account of the vineyard (1 Kings 21:19).
32. Hos. 4:2.
33. Jar. 7:9.
34. According to James, whoever shows partiality among persons sins and is condemned by the Law as a transgressor (James 2:8-9, II).
35. Ex. 20:14 w Deut. 5:18.
36. Ezek. 24:16.
37. Ex. 20:17 = Deut. 5:21.
38. Gen. 12:17-19; 20:39; 26:10-12 in Speiser, op. cit., ad coca.
39. Gen. 38:24. Simeon and Levi destroyed Shechem,
protesting: a Should he treat our sister as a harlot?. (Gen. 34:31).
40. Gen. 39:7-9.
41. Lev. 20:10.
42. Deut. 22:22.
43. Prov. 6:25, 32, 34.
44. Prov. 7:1-27.
45. Prov. 30:20.
46. Ezek. 23:6, 12, 23.
47. Jn. 8:1-11.
48. Mt. 5:27-30. Pierre Bonnard, L'evangile scion Saint Matthieu, Neuchatel: Delachau et Niestle, 1970, pp. 65ff.
49. See Mic. 2:2.
50. James 4:4.
51. Art. moicheith by F. Hauck, TWNT IV, pp. 738-740.
52. Ex. 20:15 = Deut. 5:19.
53. Gen. 44:8.
54. Gen. 30:33; cf. 31:39.
55. Ex. 22:1-3.
56. Prov. 6:30-31.
57. Ex. 20:17 = Deut. 5:21.
58. Gen. 27:15.
59. Mic. 2:2.
60. Amos 5:11. Prov. 21:20.
62. Gen. 40:15.
63. Ex. 21:16.
64. 1 Cor. 6:10; Rom. 13:9.
65. Pet. 4:15.
66. John 10:1, 8, 10.
67. Jn. 12:6.
68. Mt. 6:19.
69. James 5:2-3.
70. Ex. 20:16 = Dent. 5:20. Art. pseudinnartus by H. Strathmann, TWNT IV, pp. 519-521.
71. Ex. 23:1-2.
72. Prov. 6:16, 19.
73. Prov. 12:17.
74. Prov. 25:18.
75. Prov. 19:9. 99 Deut. 19:18.
77. James 1:26.
78. James 3:12. See Martin Noth, Exodus: A Commentary, London: SCM Press, 1966, pp. 155-157.
79. Sirach 23:8ff.
80. James 4:12.
81. See Ezek. 18:6-7, 11.
82. See art. moichehe by F. Hauck, TWNT IV, p. 738, note 2.
83. Ex. 20:12 = Deut. 5:16.
84. Prov. 1:8.
85. Prov. 1:11.
86. Ex. 20:12.
87. In a previous study, La Religione dei patriarchs (see note 14), pp. 235-236, we elaborated the hypothesis that the Tetragrammaton was a verbal form of the root hwh, to be (Ex. 3:14), used in the third person singular as in the oldest God-bearing • names (Joshua, lochebed: Ex. 17:9-10; 6:20), representing an elliptical proposition hwh X equivalent to e to belong to •, r to be someone who belongs to ... »: And I will not be theirs. (Hos. 1:8; Ps. 118:6; 2 Sam. 16:18 Dere).
88. A.E. Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.C., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923, doc. 15, 34.
89 La Religions dei patriarchs, pp. /37-48.
90. Ex. 20:3-7.
91. Ex. 29:22.
92. Gen. 29:21.
93. Ex. 20:8 Dcut. 5:12.
94. J.L. McKenzie Dictionary of the Bible, London: Chapman, 1972, pp., 751752; U. Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Exodus, Jerusalem 1967, pp. 190-191, 244-245.
95. Ex. 5:5.
96. Ex. 5:3.
97. Art. agieza by 0. Procksh, TWNT I, pp. 112-114.
98. Ex. 31:14.
99. Ex. 20:11.
100. Deut. 5:15.
101. Mk. 2:27. 202 Mt. 12:3. 103 Mt. 12:5.
104. Lk. 13:16; 14:1-5.
105. Mt. 28:1; In. 19:42; Mk. 16:1.
106. Acts 13:14; 16:13; 17:2; 18:4.
107. I Cor. 16:2; Acts 20:7; Rev. 1 0 sec Heb. 4:10.
108. Col. 2:17.
109. Hob. 4:10; Rev. 14:13.
110. Heb. 4:1-11
111. Rom. 15:8.
112. In. 10:35.
113. Mt. 5:18.
114. Mt. 5:17: among the possible Hebrew equivalents of the Latin solvers is the Pie/ pitteah of Job 12:18; in general, see the article lub by F. Buchsel, TWNT IV, p. 337.
115.. Mt. 5:17-20. Ortensio da Spinctoli, Maitso: Com- ment° al Vangelo della Chiesa, Assisi 1973, pp. 128-132. 3
116. Mt. 5:19.
117. Rom. 15:13.
118. Ex. 3:1; 18:5. Sce Martin Noth, Exodus: A Commentary, London: SCM Press, 1966, pp. 155-157.
119. Prov. 30:8-9.
120. Jer. 2:8.
121. See Ex. 20:7.
122. See Ex. 20:16; Prov. 30:6.
123. Prov. 30:11.
124. Ex. 2/:12.
125. Prov. 30:1.
126. Gen. 25:14; I Chron. 1:30.
127. Prov. 31:1.
128. Am. 1:12; Jer. 49:7; Ezek. 25:13.
129. Hab. 3:3, 7.
130. Gen. 25:24 14.
131. Ex. 2 :16ff .
132. Ex. 18:13-27.
133. We have made this the object of study in our volume Un profit° biblico del matrimonio soon to be released by A.V.E. publishers, Rome 1977.
135. La lettera di Giacomo: proposta per una legge di liberty Bibbia e Oriente, XVIII No. 5-6 (1976), pp. 235-240. An English translation appears in this issue of SIDIC.
136. Rom. 9:1ff.
137. La lettera di Giacomo », pp. 239-40; in general: Joseph Heinemann, Prayer in the Period of the Tanna'im and the Amory gym, Jerusalem 1966.
138. J.Z. Werblowsky, .Torah ve-hesed », lecture given at the Pontifical Biblical Institute, Rome, April 24, 1976.
134. Acts 15:21.