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Christian-Jewish Collaboration in North America: The Early Leaders
John T.Pawlikowski
Contemporary Christian-Jewish relations in the United States and Canada have their roots in developments prior to Vatican II as well as to pioneering work of courageous Christians and Jews in the immediate aftermath of Vatican II's historic declaration Nostra Aetate. North American bishops played a critical role in the passage of Nostra Aetate at the Council, rescuing the document at certain key moments when its fate hung in a balance. Their support in part was due to a level of collaboration on public issues that had been achieved in the more pluralistic context of North America for several decades prior to the Council. While such cooperation did not often generate genuine interreligious conversation as we have come to know it today, it did lead to a measure of trust and confidence between Christians and Jews historically unprecedented.
As we probe the roots of the contemporary Christian-Jewish encounter in North America we see the following realities contributing to its development: (1) interest among Christians in Canada and the
United States in the "Holy Land"; (2) cooperation between Christian and Jewish organizations in the United States during the era of labor organizing and economic legislation associated with President Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" campaign; (3) Quebec's "Quiet Revolution" and its impact on education; (4) Catholic and Protestant textbook studies undertaken at St. Louis and Yale universities respectively in the late fifties and early sixties; (5) founding of the National Conference of Christians and Jews in the wake of the anti-Catholicism which arose during the 1928 U.S. Presidential Campaign in which a Catholic, Alfred E. Smith, headed the Democratic Party ticket. These realities helped fertilize the soil for the growth of the more in-depth and expansive dialogue launched in response to Nostra Aetate and similar declarations from many major Protestant denominations and ecumenical bodies.
Christian Interest in the Holy Land
One of the earliest positive influences on the future Christian-Jewish dialogue was the growing interest among some Christians in North America (mostly Protestants of a more evangelical stripe) in the significance of the Holy Land. While this interest did not directly challenge longstanding stereotypes of Jews and Judaism within the churches, it did begin to alter the ethos in the Jewish-Christian relationship in a more positive direction. It eventually led to the emergence of a small, but not completely insignificant group of Christian "Zionists" such as Carl Herman Voss who supported the Jewish People's re-emergence as a national state at a time when the Protestant establishment and its journals such as The Christian Century were strongly opposed to a politically sovereign Jewish homeland in Palestine.
Christian historian and dialogue pioneer Robert T. Handy was one of the first scholars to grasp the importance of North American Protestant and Catholic travel to the Holy Land which began in an important way in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Handy's groundbreaking studies1 have been followed up by a new generation of scholars such as David Klatzer for the United States and Michael Brown for Canada. These studies show that certain leading Christians in English Canada such as the Honorable John Hawkins Hagarty and William Henry Draper, both of whom served terms as chief justice of Ontario, and Rev. Egerton Ryerson, the first President of the University of Victoria College and a longtime chief superintendent of education for the province of Ontario, associated themselves in a very public way with a pro-Zionist stance. They also reveal that, at times, the experience of Christian travelers to the Holy Land led to attempts to moderate classical stereotypes of Jews.
One instance of the latter can be found in Adam Clayton Powell, Sr.'s2 account of his 1939 pilgrimage. On the trip from Cairo to Jaffa Powell was reminded of how the Hebrews borrowed gold and silver from the Egyptians (Ex 11:2). That led him to relate a story told by Booker T. Washington about a Black slave who ate his master's animals: "You owns the chicken and you owns me," said the slave; "You has a little less chicken and a little more Negro." Powell went on to explain that Jewish salesmen are unable to get fair prices from Gentiles and are sometimes forced to ask for higher prices knowing that the Gentiles expect them to begin the so-called "jewing process." In clever fashion, Powell was trying to break down prejudices towards Jews he knew to be commonplace among his Christian readers.
Cooperation in an Era of Social Struggle
Another dimension of the pre-history of the contemporary Christian-Jewish dialogue is found in the relationships forged among Protestants, Catholics and Jews during some three decades of social struggle in the United States which also had some impact on Canada. Leaders from the major Christian and Jewish national organizations of the time (the Federal Council of Churches, the National Catholic Welfare Conference and the Central Conference of American Rabbis) joined in a coalition for workers' rights and general economic justice which lasted well over two decades.
There was tri-faith involvement in the engine-men's strike on the Western Maryland Railroad in 1927 and in the investigation into the Armistice Day Tragedy of 1919 in Centralia, Washington in which worker lives were lost. On the federal labor policy level several important interventions were undertaken by representatives of the three faith communities. December 1929 saw the release of a joint Protestant-Catholic-Jewish statement on conditions in the textile industry, followed by one on unemployment in January 1932. The previous year had witnessed tri-faith sponsorship of a national conference on "Permanent Preventives of Unemployment" in Washington. And in June 1932, when unemployment in the United States had risen to alarming proportions and the federal government seemed reluctant to take any decisive action to remedy the situation, Rabbi Edward L. Israel, Fr. R.A. McGowan and the Rev. James Myers joined representatives of the American Federation of Labor and national farmers' organizations in testifying before the U.S. Congress. In their presentations, broadcast on a nationwide radio hookup, they demanded an adequate response to the unemployment crisis from government at both the federal and local levels. Their testimony is credited with significant influence in bringing about congressional approval of the first federal funds for meeting this crisis later that year.
In July 1933, after passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NRA), the Central Conference of American Rabbis and the Federal Council of Churches in conjunction with the Catholic Bishops' Conference issued a public statement outlining the social implications of this historic legislation. Signing for the Bishops' Conference was Msgr. John A. Ryan who became a towering figure in the history of social legislation in the United States. Finally, in December 1933, representatives of the three major faith communities appeared before the House of Representatives, then in a discussion of tax legislation. They offered interventions calling for laws that would ensure a more equitable distribution of wealth and income in the nation.
It is impossible to determine precisely the extent to which these tri-faith interventions impacted legislation in the United States. But there is evidence they carried significant weight with legislators and opinion molders. Social researchers Claris Silcox and Galen Fisher of the Institute of Social and Religious Research in 1934 explicitly attributed the abolition of the twelve-hour day in the steel industry, for example, "in considerable measure" to these tri-faith efforts. Overall they concluded that "this close collaboration by these three agencies, speaking for tens of thousands of churches and synagogues, is considered ... to have done much toward educating the conscience of the nation and toward demonstrating the courageous concern of all the creeds with justice and the good life... It has helped to disprove the charge that the religious bodies are class organizations, the tools and defenders of special interests."3
From the perspective of this essay the most significant aspect of these tri-faith efforts on social legislation is the trust and personal confidence they engendered among the religious leaders. When we ask ourselves why the U.S. and Canadian bishops so strongly supported Vatican II's historic declaration on The Church and the Jewish People, part of the response surely lies in the influence of this social coalition. Though it never led the religious leaders of the time into a discussion of specific theological questions affecting Christian-Jewish relations, I would argue that it created a legacy of goodwill which, at Vatican II, was translated into firm support for the passage of Nostra Aetate.
The Quebec "Quiet Revolution"
A third important event in North America occurred in Canada, specifically in Quebec. Rooted in a fundamental challenge to the educational system in Quebec by a young teaching brother this "Quiet Revolution," as it eventually came to be known, unleashed a major overhaul of the system in the early sixties. This overhaul provided a window of opportunity for one of the most important pioneers in Christian-Jewish relations on this continent, Sr. Marie-Noëlle de Baillehâche, NDS. She had already done some preliminary work through the Ratisbonne Centre in Montreal and its periodical which she renamed Dialogue after her arrival from France in 1959.
The reaction to the sweeping challenge of educational approaches in Quebec in part involved the creation of a Royal Commission to investigate the situation. Sr. Marie-Noëlle believed that the Jewish community of Quebec ought to have input into the Commission's hearings. She contacted various Jewish leaders and organizations in Montreal for their views. While enthusiasm for her idea was not uniformly high among the Jewish leaders with whom she spoke, she pursued her project in earnest. She eventually published a major article on the Jews and the crisis of education in Quebec which appeared in la PRESSE.
Aware that her work on Christian-Jewish issues was complicated by continuing divisions within the Christian community, Sr. Marie-Noëlle began working on Christian unity, enlisting the help of various congregations of religious women. With the discussions of Vatican Council II on ecumenism well underway, Sr. Marie-Noëlle's efforts began to show positive results in Quebec. Her ecumenical work also provided an opportunity to convey information on Jews and Judaism to Christian church leaders with whom she was in contact. In September 1964 an invitation from a leading Orthodox Jewish woman for Sr. Marie-Noëlle to address her synagogue on recent developments in Catholic-Jewish relations resulted in a major interview with the Montreal Star.
Sr. Marie Noelle now began working with Rev. Roland de Corneille, an Anglican priest in Toronto, who had become an early champion of improved Christian-Jewish understanding throughout Canada. Fr. de Corneille came to Montreal to speak and to engage Jewish leaders in discussion about a permanent dialogue program in Montreal. Such a program was eventually launched with the support of several professors from McGill University, the Jesuits who assigned Fr. Stefan Valiquette, S.J.4 to work with Sr. Marie-Noëlle, Rabbi Wilfred Shuchat and others. It was centered at the Ratisbonne Centre now renamed the "Centre MI-CA-EL."
Through the Centre Sr. Marie-Noëlle organized a program of lectures and several local church-synagogue discussion groups. She prepared the visits to Canada by Fr. Cornelius Rijk, the first director of the Vatican Office for Catholic-Jewish Relations and Frs. Bruno Hussar5 and Marcel Dubois, two Dominicans based in Israel who were themselves pioneers in promoting the dialogue. Her French translation of the basic book on Judaism by Rabbi Stuart Rosenberg for the Jewish pavilion at Expo 67 and an article on Yiddish in the Canadian Jewish Digest6 brought her further notoriety.
When Archbishop Paul Gregoire wanted a Catholic-Jewish dialogue for priests and rabbis established in Montreal, he turned to Sr. Marie-Noëlle. Though centered in Quebec, Sr. Marie-Noëlle's work influenced other parts of Canada as well. It impacted the work of the Sisters of Sion in Canadian areas such as Toronto, Saskatoon, and Winnipeg. In Toronto it led to collaboration with leading theologians including Gregory Baum. Her collaboration with Fr. de Corneille was mutually beneficial to both.
Fr. de Corneille played a pivotal role through the League for Human Rights of B'nai B'rith and subsequently, as a member of the Canadian parliament, in rooting the dialogue in Toronto and other parts of English-speaking Canada. His work on the 1968 meeting of the International Council of Christians and Jews in Toronto, at which the Anglican scholar and dialogue father-figure James Parkes was the keynote speaker, helped establish the Christian-Jewish dialogue as an important social force in Canada as well as the United States.
Christian and Jewish Textbook Studies
The studies on Christian textbooks sponsored by the American Jewish Committee and its interreligious director Rabbi Marc H. Tanenbaum7 constituted a fourth groundbreaking reality in the growth of the Christian-Jewish dialogue. The Protestant study, undertaken by the late Dr. Bernhard E. Olson at Yale University, was the first to be concluded. He examined some 120,000 religious school lesson plans and texts of four publishers representing the major Protestant denominations. The results of his seven-year study were published in 1963 under the title Faith and Prejudice.8 Dr. Olson's thorough analysis of the intergroup content in Protestant teaching prompted then President of Union Theological Seminary in New York, John C. Bennett to remark that "consciously or unconsciously, the seeds of prejudice are in religious teachings."9 Noted theologian Reinhold Niebuhr, upon examining Dr. Olson's findings, asserted that religious sources of antisemitism may in fact be more powerful than racial ones.
The Catholic portion of the AJC's trifaith textbook project was entrusted to the direction of Fr. Trafford P. Maher, S.J., of the sociology department at St. Louis University. He divided the study into three areas: literature, social studies and religion, each area becoming subject matter for a doctoral dissertation by a student in the department. An analysis of Catholic high school texts in history, geography, civics and social studies was produced by Sr. M. Rita Mudd, FSCP while Sr. M. Linus Gleason, CSJ examined high school literature materials. The pivotal study of religious textbooks was given over to Sr. Rose Thering, OP.10 Sr. Thering's study was deliberately undertaken last in the Catholic series due to Fr. Maher's concern that criticism of religious texts might outrage many Catholics.
A Jewish component of the Textbook project was supervised by Dr. Bernard D. Weinryb at Dropsie College in Philadelphia. He examined over two hundred pieces of classroom material in English, Hebrew and Yiddish drawn from forty-six organizations and publishers. He found that the Jewish instructional materials were generally non-directional (neither positive nor negative) in their approach to Christianity and other religions. Criticism was usually limited to specific representatives of religious outgroups rather than to the group as a whole, with the exception of some materials coming from East European Jewry. Dr. Weinryb concluded that on the whole the Jewish school curriculum is more introverted than its Catholic or Protestant counterparts. The Jewish study was never published in book form and had only minimal impact on refocusing Jewish attitudes towards dialogue.
The Christian studies, on the other hand, had considerable impact. The Catholic and Protestant results were brought to the attention of major publishers in both communities who, for the first time, were presented with scientific data regarding the presence of prejudice in Christian teaching materials. This resulted in wholesale re-examinations of basic Christian teaching materials in the major areas of distortion (e.g. responsibility for the Crucifixion, theological significance of Judaism after the coming of Christ and the image of the Pharisees).
Dr. Olson eventually used the findings of his studies as the basis for programming at the National Conference of Christians and Jews in New York. The Catholic studies played a role in the development and passage of chapter four of Vatican II's Nostra Aetate. Catholic leaders at the Council who supported the proposed statement on Catholic-Jewish relations, as well as Jewish observers such as Rabbi Marc Tanenbaum, used the results of these studies in their efforts to persuade bishops to support the document. Sr. Rose Thering launched a major effort to re-educate Catholic teachers and clergy about Jews and Judaism in light of the textbook studies, first through the Catholic Adult Education Center in Chicago and subsequently at Seton Hall University in New Jersey. Probably no single person in North America has done more to implant a new understanding of Christian-Jewish relations in the realm of education than Sr. Rose.
National Conference of Christians and Jews
The final reality I would underline as contributing to the Christian-Jewish encounter in North America is the founding of the National Conference of Christians and Jews in the wake of the anti-Catholicism generated by the 1928 U.S. Presidential election. Established in Chicago through the efforts of Rabbi Louis Mann of Chicago's famed Sinai Congregation and a coalition of mostly Protestant Christian clergy, the NCCJ (now the National Conference) soon grew into a national entity, establishing branch offices throughout the United States. In its early days the NCCJ focused on sending out teams composed of Jews and Christians to local congregations and public meetings to combat various forms of prejudice, including racism, anti-Catholicism and antisemitism. Though most Catholic bishops kept their support of the NCCJ to a minimum, Catholic laypersons were given permission to participate on these interreligious teams.
While the work of these interreligious teams and the "brotherhood" weeks to which they eventually gave rise may seem rather minimalist in light of today's standards, it did establish Jews and Judaism as a major religious force in what had been viewed as "Christian America." It also led to the formation of personal relationships for the first time between Jews and Christians enabling collaboration on a range of social issues. It made possible as well joint local efforts in important cities such as Chicago where Cardinal George Mundelein became an important voice in the denunciation of Nazism and where social pioneers such as Msgr. John Egan forged collaborative efforts with Jewish leaders committed to social reform.
The early efforts of the NCCJ did not directly confront the anti-Judaism prevalent in Christian theology at the time. This was to come somewhat later when Dr.Bernhard Olsen established himself at the NCCJ national office in New York. Through the efforts of Dr. Olsen and other NCCJ figures such as President David Hyatt the NCCJ and its local offices became important in bringing the findings of the textbook studies and the new Catholic and Protestant theological declarations to bear upon the attitudes of teachers and clergy. While NCCJ's impact was strongest in the Protestant community it had some influence on American Catholicism as well.
The Nostra Aetate Era
We now turn our attention to certain key individuals whose contributions had a lasting impact on Christian-Jewish understanding. Any such listing is inevitably selective and likely to by-pass the work of some pioneers. Within the Catholic community the names of Msgr. John M. Oesterreicher, Fr. Edward Flannery, Sr. Katherine Hargrove, Msgr. George Higgins and Fr. Victor Donovan stand out. All were instrumental in preparing the way for Nostra Aetate and in implementing its statement on the Church's relationship to Jews and Judaism immediately upon its passage in 1965.
John Oesterreicher, an Austrian-born Jewish convert to Catholicism, came to the United States in 1940 to escape the reach of the Gestapo. He established the Institute of Judaeo-Christian Studies at Seton Hall University in March, 1953. This institute became an early advocate of Catholic reflection on the importance of the Jewish tradition for Catholic self-understanding and for an appreciation of Jesus and the origins of Christianity. Its work included the sponsorship of conferences and the publication of an occasional volume called The Bridge. The fifth and final volume was published after Vatican II and was the only one to include Jewish contributions. In 1952 Msgr. Oesterreicher published a volume entitled Walls are Crumbling describing seven Jewish philosophers who had discovered Christ. A revised version of this work was re-published in 1967 as Five in Search of Wisdom. After Vatican II Msgr. Oesterreicher turned his publishing attention to discussions of covenant theology and the impact of Auschwitz on Christian reflection. He also produced an account of the development of Nostra Aetate.11
Msgr. Oesterreicher played an important role in placing the issue of Catholic-Jewish relations on the agenda of Vatican II where his presence influenced the shape of the final version of Nostra Aetate. In early 1960 Oesterreicher together with Professor (later Bishop) John J. Dougherty of Immaculate Conception Seminary in Darlington, New Jersey and thirteen other priests wrote a petition to Cardinal Bea asking that the coming Council explicitly take up the question of Christian-Jewish reconciliation. This petition served as an important impulse for the idea of a conciliar declaration on the Church's relationship to the Jewish people. In February 1961 Oesterreicher was appointed as a consultor in the Secretariat for Christian Unity. Together with Abbot Leo Rudloff (the founder of Weston Priory in Vermont) and Gregory Baum, he served as a member of the "subcommission for Jewish questions." After the Council Msgr. Oesterreicher had a hand in the establishment of the U.S. Bishops' Secretariat for Catholic-Jewish Relations which was initially housed at Seton Hall.
Msgr. Oesterreicher's work was not without some controversy. Some Jewish leaders criticized The Bridge for its pre-conciliar "Catholics only" policy, while his books on Jewish converts, especially the post-Vatican II edition which quickly disappeared from the market, brought him criticism from both Jews and Christians in the dialogue. In his later years he broke with some leading Christian figures in the dialogue over theological issues related to Auschwitz and over Christian support of Israel. Whatever the controversy regarding Oesterreicher's efforts, there is no doubt he must be regarded as an early, leading voice in Christian-Jewish understanding in North America whose efforts were indispensable in the foundation of the continuing dialogue. In 1964 prior to Nostra Aetate he was honored by a major Jewish congregation in Massachusetts, one of the first Christians to receive such an award. Clearly his positive contributions were noticed and appreciated by representatives of the Jewish community.
Msgr. Oesterreicher also had a hand in the emergence of another pioneer, Fr. Edward Flannery. A priest of the diocese of Providence, Rhode Island, Fr. Flannery first came to national attention through his groundbreaking volume The Anguish of the Jews which detailed the history of Christian antisemitism. This book, with an Introduction by Oesterreicher, had a tremendous impact on Christian consciousness regarding antisemitism as demonstrated by its several reprintings. Msgr. Oesterreicher also had a hand in the appointment of Fr. Flannery as founding director of the U.S. Bishops' Office on Catholic-Jewish Relations. He provided invaluable assistance to Fr. Flannery in launching the office which was eventually relocated from from Seton Hall to the National Conference of Catholic Bishops' headquarters in Washington. Working effectively within the structure of the Conference Fr. Flannery was able to gain support for several statements of the U.S. Bishops which applied Nostra Aetate to the U.S. situation and to issue important statements on some specific problems challenging the Catholic-Jewish relationship.
In close collaboration with Fr. Flannery at the Bishops' Conference was another pioneer, Msgr. George Higgins. Known as the "labor priest" for his strong support of unionization (where he worked closely with many Jewish labor leaders), Msgr. Higgins was especially conversant with processes at the Conference. He became chair of the national advisory committee for Fr. Flannery's office and provided invaluable aid in navigating proposed statements to approval by the bishops. Msgr. Higgins did much to promote the dialogue and to speak out against antisemitism through his nationally syndicated column "The Yardstick" which appeared in Catholic newspapers from coast to coast.
Finally, mention needs to be made of Sr. Katherine Hargrove, RSCJ, of Manhattanville College in New York and Fr. Victor Donovan, CP. Sr. Hargrove, through her writings, lectures and teaching contributed significantly to the early development of the dialogue and the initial implementation of Nostra Aetate. Fr. Donovan, through his lectures, writings and work with the Edith Stein Guild, played a similar role, especially at the grass roots level on the East Coast.
Within the Protestant community mention needs to be made of the work of people such as Franklin Littell and Roy and Alice Eckardt. All have given themselves through their writings to the re-examination of Christian-Jewish relations in the light of the Holocaust. They were pioneering, and often lonely, voices in American Protestantism confronting the antisemitism that was pervasive in so much of its bureaucracy and publications. Professor Littell was also instrumental in the establishment of two lasting institutions in the North American dialogue, the annual Scholars' Conference on the Holocaust and the Churches and and the National Christian Leadership Conference for Israel. Mention should also be made of the leading Protestant theologian Reinhold Niebuhr for his decisive stands in Christian-Jewish relations at key moments.
In the Jewish community the leading early figures surely were Rabbi Marc Tanenbaum of the American Jewish Committee and his assistant Judith Banki. At the Anti-Defamation League the names of Rabbis Arthur Gilbert and Solomon Bernards deserve inclusion. Rabbi Gilbert impacted education and played some role in supporting the passage of Nostra Aetate. Rabbi Bernards, especially through his institutes for Christian faculty members held annually at Princeton Theological Seminary, was responsible for converting many Protestant educators towards a dialogical vision.
Several others deserve mention as well. Professor J. Coert Rylaarsdam, a professor of Old Testament at the University of Chicago, was among the first biblical scholars to rethink the Jewish-Christian relationship from a biblical point of view. And Paulist priest Fr. John Sheerin, who edited The Catholic World, was an early supporter of the dialogue. He co-founded with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Rabbi Abraham Heschel Clergy and Laity Concerned About Vietnam which mobilized Jewish and Christian leaders against
Rabbi Marc H. Tanenbaum was one of the true pioneers of interreligious dialogue, and one of a small group of devoted activists whose work defined and shaped the field that has come to be known as interreligious affairs. He would have considered it a fitting tribute to say that he made a difference in the world. He made a difference not only in his lifetime but in the lives of succeeding generations. There are young Christian and Jewish men and women who have grown up free of poisonous religious bigotry, free from fear of the other, respectful of one another's spiritual legacy, involved in collaborative efforts across religious lines on behalf of human and civil rights who do not know how much of the groundwork he laid. His initiatives on behalf of a fair and accurate portrayal of Jews and Judaism in Christian teaching and preaching, the creative energy he brought to this task in pursuit of a vision of reconciliation based on justice, his persistence and resiliency in face of setbacks and disappointments, left a rich legacy for those who followed.
Moreover, there are Africans and Southeast Asians - Biafrans, Vietnamese and Cambodians - alive today because of his activism and mobilization of interreligious re-
the war. Rabbi Heschel, in addition to his social activism with Christians during the Vietnam war, also contributed to the emerging dialogue through his encounters with Christian scholars at Union Theological Seminary in New York which had ties with his own institution, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Finally, Dr. Joseph Lichten of the Anti-Defamation League was among the first to build new relations with the American Catholic community, especially in the area of Polish-Jewish relations. He was eventually knighted by the Vatican.
The work of the pioneers we have mentioned was enhanced by numerous other Christians and Jews. Together their efforts for a good part of this century have engrafted the dialogue as a permanent fixture in North America. Those of us who have come after them owe much to their foundational efforts.
John T.Pawlikowski *
NotesJohn T. Pawlikowski is a Servite Priest and Professor of Social Ethics at the Catholic Theological Union in Chicago. He is editor of New Theology Review and author of ten books and numerous articles on the Holocaust and on Christian-Jewish relations. His various awards include the 1989 Raoul Wallenberg Award for Distinguished Contributions to Religion, and the 1994 "Person of the Year" Award from the Polish Council of Christians and Jews (Warsaw).
1. Cf. Robert T. Handy, "The America-Holy Land Studies Project: A Personal Statement," David Klatzer, "American Christian Travelers to the Holy Land, 1921-1939," and Michael Brown, "Canada and the Holy Land: Some North American Similarities and Differences," in With Eyes Toward Zion--III: Western Societies and the Holy Land, eds. Moshe David and Yehoshua Ben-Arieh. New York/Westport, CT/London: Prager, 1991, pp 33-39; 63-76; 77-91.
2. Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. was the father of one of the first U.S. African-American members of Congress.
3. Cf. Claris Silcox and Galen Fisher, Catholics, Jews and Protestants: A Study of Relationships in the United States and Canada, New York: Institute of Social and Religious Research, 1934, 301-331.
4. Fr. Valiquette had been instrumental in bringing the Sisters of Sion to Montreal.
5. Fr. Bruno Hussar's contributions are developed in a separate article in this issue.
6. Canadian Jewish Digest, 13:1 (Spring 1971).
7. Rabbi Tanenbaum's contributions are highlighted in a separate article in this issue.
8. Bernard E. Olson, Faith and Prejudice. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963.
9. Cf. James W. Arnold, Religious Textbooks: Primers in Bigotry, New York: The American Jewish Committee, 1970, p 2.
10. For a summary and discussion of the Catholic studies, cf. John T. Pawlikowski, OSM, Catechetics and Prejudice: How Catholic Teaching Materials View Jews, Protestants and Racial Minoirites.
11. John M. Oesterreicher, The New Encounter Between Christians and Jews. New York: Philosophical Library, 1986.
