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Jewish-Christian relations and the dialogue with world religions - A Bibliographical Survey
Lawrence E. Frizzell
As we assess human relations over the past few decades we are astounded by a paradox: greater understanding has been achieved among various religious and political communities, yet atrocities in a wide range of settings hark to earlier ages, back to crudeness and cruelty that defy our imagination. Does this indicate a tension between universal and particular that people of good will can hope to resolve? Will more widespread education provide the key to greater peace? Of course, we must acknowledge that advances in knowledge often bring more sophisticated levels of attacks on the rights and lives of others. The sharing of spiritual and moral ideals, therefore, constitute an essential aspect of a hope for a better world. In the past as well as at present, religious fervor has been twisted to serve the base purposes of national or ethnic pride and self-centered attitudes. For this reason many thinkers have tried to eliminate the factor of religion from political theory. But in many areas of the world, people have reasserted their religious commitment with a vengeance.1 Within the context of strident confrontations between the secular and the religious groups of many nations, the urgent need for sharing fundamental spiritual and moral issues becomes ever more imperative. While listening to people of good will from every background, those with religious convictions realize that the secular mentality is not merely neutral but espouses a set of values that include elements antithetical to their own. It is extremely important for religious communities to enter into dialogue in order to overcome antipathies and misunderstandings as well as to discover a shared perspective in the debate with other world views. The purpose of this essay is to show some of the ways that religious leaders and scholars have explored these issues.
For Catholics, and in some ways for other communities, the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) is the watershed event of this century for ecumenism and interfaith relations. Work of individuals and groups during the earlier phases of interreligious exchanges was very significant, but the impact of the Council involved a new depth and breadth of long-term commitment. The first benefits were discerned among a number of the larger Christian communities associated with the World Council of Churches. Then the effort of the Catholic Church to reflect on its relationship with the Jewish people became the foundation for wider interfaith discussions. The World Council of Churches had led the way in formulating a condemnation of anti-Jewish hatred, but the Catholic declaration of "The Church's Relation to Non-Christian Religions" helped others to develop new depths of perception.
How did the "Decree on the Jews," requested by Pope John XXIII for the Second Vatican Council, become "The Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions" (Nostra Aetate), promulgated on October 28, 1965? The complex history of this text has been recounted by John M. Oesterreicher.2 One might ask as well how the subsequent developments of dialogue were affected by the context of this Declaration. Did the brief discussion of world religions before presentation of "The Church's Bond with the Jewish People" (paragraph 4) enhance the place of Catholic-Jewish encounters within the larger picture?
The contribution of the Council is discussed as "The Watershed of Vatican II: Catholic Attitudes towards Other Religions" in One God, One Lord in a World of Religious Pluralism (ed. Andrew D. Clarke and Bruce W. Winter. Cambridge: Tyndale House, 1991) p.153-171. Miika Ruokanen has evaluated Nostra Aetate in the context of other Council documents in The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions according to the Second Vatican Council (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1992). There has not been a fundamental shift in the Church's sense of a mission to humankind in continuing the Master's work. "Just as Christ penetrated to the hearts of people and by a truly human dialogue led them to the divine light, so too his disciples, profoundly pervaded by the Spirit of Christ, should know and converse with those among whom they live, that through sincere and patient dialogue these people may learn of the riches which the generous God has distributed among the nations..." (Decree on the Church's Missionary Activity #11). The call to bear witness to the Gospel is, however, accompanied by an understanding that elements of truth and holiness are being reflected already in the lives of many people (see Nostra Aetate #2). Gone is the "religious imperialism" of recent centuries!
Francis Cardinal Arinze, President of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, recently edited a collection of 302 Vatican documents under the title Interreligious Dialogue in the Papal Magisterium (1994). The Church's openness over the past thirty years was symbolized by two events in Assisi in September and October 1986, a meeting sponsored by the World Wildlife Fund for religions to reflect on ecology and the World Day of Prayer for Peace, which was convoked by Pope John Paul II. Harmony among human beings and respect for other creatures constitute ideals which various religious communities can discuss in order to promote common action.
The personal reflections of Pope John Paul II in responding to a journalist's questions indicate how the Council's perspectives and his own encounters with Jews and other religious communities have made a deep impact. Crossing the Threshold of Hope (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994), however, is evocative rather than comprehensive; the Pope probably did not consult with others before formulating his responses. Tensions with Buddhists from Sri Lanka, for example, caused a sensation but might lead local Catholic theologians to a new stage of mutual understanding. However, the sad situation of alienation among religious communities in that nation has endured for many years. The work of reconciliation there has its martyrs, whose example may offer hope to those pursuing peace. May the work of the Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue grow and flourish! Tissa Balasuriya reflects on this question in "Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka and the responsibility of the theologian," Frontiers in Asian Christian Theology (ed. R.S.Sugirtharajah. Maryknoll: Orbis, 1994)p.236-251.
Twenty-five years after the Council Decree on Missionary Activity, Pope John Paul II promulgated the encyclical Redemptoris Missio (The Mission of the Redeemer). In 1991 Cardinals Arinze and Tomko (the latter being Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples) issued a statement "Dialogue and Proclamation" which discussed issues of interreligious dialogue and proclamation of the Gospel. William R. Burrows has edited essays on these texts in Redemption and Dialogue; Reading Redemptoris Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1993).
Bishop Michael Fitzgerald, Secretary of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, reviewed the work of the Church over recent years in "Interreligious dialogue today," Catholic International 4 (April 1993)p.190-194. Universities, religious congregations and lay movements (such as Focolare and S. Egidio) are involved in serious dialogues on many levels.
Some of the questions raised by juxtaposition of mission and dialogue are reviewed by Eric J. Sharpe in the entry "dialogue of religions" in The Encyclopedia of Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1987) volume 4, p.344-348. He discusses "The goals of inter-religious dialogue" in Truth and Dialogue in World Religions: Conflicting Truth Claims, edited by John Hick (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1974)p.77-95. Leonard Swidler has offered norms for avoiding pitfalls in these encounters: "The dialogue decalogue: Ground rules for interreligious dialogue," Journal of Ecumenical Studies 20 (1983) p.1-4, with a pastoral commentary by Robert L. Kinast in 21 (1984)p.311-318.
What has this larger context of dialogue meant for Catholic-Jewish relations? Probably the impact of the Vatican Council's statement on the Church's bond to the Jewish people has been greater for the Church than for Jews. Although Christian-Jewish dialogue often has led members of Jewish groups to meet each other, Jewish approaches to other religions probably derived little from the Christian experiences. It must be remembered that other factors were at work already on the international scene some time before the Council. The founding of the State of Israel provided new reasons for Jewish scholars and diplomats to show interest in the cultures and religions of the Far East and Africa. Learning about Islam in the Arab nations was even more important for Israelis. Already the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and other institutions in Israel had laid the foundations for academic research into the religions and cultures of the Middle East. Now that the political climate is beginning to change, we hope that dialogue will move beyond the university classroom, the Rainbow Group and other select circles into the fabric of daily life for the various communities residing in the Middle East.
I. Inner Christian Ecumenism
Although the term "ecumenism" is derived from the Greek Word for "the entire inhabited world," it is used technically in reference to "the movement in the Church towards the recovery of the unity of all believers in Christ, transcending differences of creed, ritual and polity."3 Because the goal is to achieve unity, the dialogue among Christians is different from interfaith or interreligious dialogue, which intends only to foster understanding and cooperation. Even among adherents to Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the question of union is not broached but the future is left to the mystery of the God whose self-revelation began with Abraham. However, the principles for dialogue were elucidated first in Christian circles, often using the ideas made popular by Martin Buber. A knowledge of the history of Christian ecumenism is beneficial as well because the mistakes and positive steps in such relationships can provide insights for people engaged in other encounters.
Among the vast resources for studying ecumenism, the Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement (D.E.M.), edited by Nicholas Lossky and others (Geneva: World Council of Churches; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991) is comprehensive and its bibliographies are extensive. An annotated review of sources for investigating themes of Christian ecumenism has been compiled by Michael A. Fahey, entitled Ecumenism: A Bibliographical Overview (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1992). Because social issues and intermarriage are the concern of all engaged in the practical aspects of dialogue among religions, statements of leaders and agreements among Christians are very pertinent.
Among the many collections of texts, the "Ecumenical Documents Series" (Mahwah: Paulist Press) is readily available. Doing the Truth in Charity, edited by Thomas Stransky and John B. Sheerin (1982) collects statements of the Popes and the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity, 1964-1980. Growth in Agreement, edited by Harding Meyer and Lukas Vischer (1984) gives the reports and agreed statements of bilateral and multilateral dialogues on the worldwide level. Towards the Healing of Schism, edited by E.J. Stormon (1987) provides an English translation of public statements and correspondence between the Holy See and the Ecumenical Patriarchate, 1958-1984. On the more local level, Building Unity, edited by Joseph A. Burgess and Jeffrey Gros (1989), presents the agreements in dialogues with Catholic participation throughout the United States. These collections can be placed in the context of later developments by consulting the Ecumenical Review, Ecumenism, the Journal of Ecumenical Studies, Irenikon, Istina, Oekumenische Rundschau, One in Christ, Una Sancta, Unité des Chrétiens and other journals. Internationale Oekumenische Bibliographie (Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag. 18 volumes in German, English, French and Spanish) is excellent but ended with coverage of 1979).
II. Jewish-Christian Relations
Although individuals and communities of Christians and Jews of past ages have met under circumstances that favored a respectful appreciation of the other, this experience was relatively rare. For the most part it was not guided by the leaders of either community. An early and fruitful collaboration in Britain and North America is studied by Marcus Braybrooke, Children of the One God: A History of the Council of Christians and Jews (London: Vallentine-Mitchell, 1991). Since the end of World War II, the World Council of Churches and other Christian bodies have issued statements that provide principles for a more positive encounter than in the past. Statements on the international and national levels have been compiled by Helga Croner, Stepping Stones to Further Jewish-Christian Relations (Mahwah: Paulist, 1977) and More Stepping Stones to Jewish-Christian Relations (1985). More recent collections include The Theology of the Churches and the Jewish People: Statements by the World Council of Churches and its Member Churches, with a commentary by A. Brockway and others (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1988). Several important statements are found in appendices to Geoffrey Wigoder, Jewish-Christian Relations since the Second World War (Manchester University Press, 1988) and Eugene J. Fisher, Faith Without Prejudice: Rebuilding Christian Attitudes Toward Judaism (New York: Crossroad, 1993 revised). Fisher and Leon Klenicki have collected texts and bibliography in a volume In Our Time: the Flowering of Jewish-Catholic Dialogue (Mahwah: Paulist, 1990). Fisher discussed "Jewish-Christian relations and the quest for Christian unity" in the Journal of Ecumenical Studies 20 (1983) p.235-274. With characteristic thoroughness and some provocative positions on the State of Israel, Hans Küng has tackled Judaism: Between Yesterday and Tomorrow. This book attempts to rectify a gap in Küng's Christianity and the World Religions: Paths to Dialogue with Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism (New York: Doubleday, 1986). His work has been assessed by Hubert Kirchner, "Hans Küngs Theologie des Dialogs-Bilanz und neuer Einsatz," Theologische Literaturzeitung 119 (1994) c. 867-874.
The extensive literature on various facets of Christian-Jewish relations is reviewed by Eugene Fisher in the volume on Nostra Aetate under the title In our Time and in his "Update on Catholic Education on Jews and Judaism in English-language materials," SIDIC 27 (#3)1994) p.24-30.
The initiatives of the present Pope are subject of a study by Henri Tincq, L'Etoile et la Croix. Jean-Paul II - Israel: l'explication (Paris: J-C Lattčs, 1993). Franklin Littel has outlined the wide range of activities of "Interfaith cooperation" in Jewish-American History and Culture: An Encyclopedia edited by Jack Fischel and Sanford Pinsker (New York: Garland Press, 1992).
III. Christians and Interreligious Encounters
As with the Jewish people, the modern Christian encounter with other world religions must be placed within the millennial context of Church history. The spirit of dialogue must prove itself within the judgment of neighbors whose memories carry tragic burdens from the past. Can preaching the Gospel be compatible with a great sensitivity toward the rights of others to live according to their conscience? We recall that the inner Christian search for unity is based on the scandal that division presents to outsiders. 4 Progress with Catholic circles since the Second Vatican Council regarding these questions is grounded on the principles of Nostra Aetate, the Declaration on Religious Liberty (Dignitatis Humanae) and other decrees, and has been developed in subsequent documents, as noted above.
"The Vatican Council declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom. Freedom of this kind means that all human beings should be immune from coercion on the part of individuals, social groups and every human power so that, within due limits, nobody is forced to act against his convictions in religious matters..." (Dignitatis Humanae #2). This right should be guaranteed by every state (see The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations in 1948) and respected by all engaged in missionary work. When does "witness" become an act of aggression? The verb "proselytize" is described as the corruption of Christian witness by subtle or open cajolery, bribery, undue pressure or intimidation (see the document on "Christian Witness, Proselytism and Religious Liberty" of the World Council of Churches, New Delhi, 1961). It is also offensive to exploit the need, weakness or lack of education among those to whom witness is offered. This precision comes from a study document of the Joint Working Group between the Roman Catholic Church and the World Council of Churches in 1970. These principles should provide a basis for most Christians to assess their conduct. The community losing members often complains of unfair tactics on the part of others. Just as readily each religious tradition should measure itself against a standard reflecting the golden rule (Matt. 7:12).5
Interreligious encounters are almost as old as the Church, whose teachers defined their positions in relation to both Jews and other responses to the great spiritual questions. The stakes were conceived in terms of the ancient confrontations between the prophets of Israel and its neighbors; such an approach meant that usually the literature was destined for the community defending itself against a hostile world.6
S. Wesley Ariarajah sketches developments within this century in "Dialogue, Interfaith" (D.E.M.p. 281-287), which is to be supplemented by evaluations of the World's Parliament of Religions (Chicago, 1893).7 In considerable detail, Robert B. Sheard has offered "an historical and theological study" entitled Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church Since Vatican II (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987). Besides tracing the work of the Secretariat for Non-Christians, (later known as The Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue) founded by Pope Paul VI in 1964, this book also sketches efforts of Catholic thinkers to develop a theology of world religions, as does Peter C. Phan (ed) Christianity and the Wider Ecumenism (New York: Paragon, 1985). The key issues of uniqueness regarding Jesus and Christianity are discussed and debated in an enormous number of works, some of which are listed here: Carl E. Braaten, No Other Gospel! Christianity among the World's Religions (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992); Arnulf Camps, Partners in Dialogue: Christianity and Other World Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1983); John T. and Denise L. Carmody, Christian Uniqueness and Catholic Spirituality (Mahwah: Paulist, 1990); Andrew Clarke and Bruce Winter (ed), One God, One Lord in a World of Religious Pluralism (Cambridge: Tyndale House, 1991); Harold G. Coward, Pluralism: Challenge to World Religions (New York, 1985); Donald Dawe and John Carman (ed), Christian Faith in a Religiously Plural World (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1978); Kwesi A. Dickson, Uncompleted Mission: Christianity and Exclusivism (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1991); Joseph DiNoia, The Diversity of Religions: A Christian Perspective (Washington: Catholic University of America, 1992); Jacques Dupuis, Jesus Christ at the Encounter of World Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1991); A. Roy Eckardt, Reclaiming the Jesus of History: Christology Today (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992); Paul J. Griffiths, An Apology for Apologetics: A Study in the Logic of Interreligious Dialogue (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1991) and Christianity Through Non-Christian Eyes (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1990); S. Mark Heim, Is Christ the Only Way? Christian Faith in a Pluralistic World (Valley Forge: Judson, 1985); John Hick, God Has Many Names (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1980); Problems of Religious Pluralism (London,1985) and Truth and Dialogue in World Religions: Conflicting Truth Claims (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974); John Hick and Paul Knitter (ed), The Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic Theology of Religion (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1988); Eugene Hillman, Many Paths: A. Catholic Approach to Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1989); David Lockhead, The Dialogical Imperative: A Christian Reflection on Interfaith Encounter (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1988); Molly Marshall, No Salvation Outside the Church? A Critical Inquiry (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1993); Harold A. Netland, Dissonant Voices: Religious Pluralism and the Question of Truth (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991); Leslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralistic Society (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989);. Schubert Ogden, Is There Only One True Religion or Are There Many? (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1992); Alan Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian Theology of Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1982); Glyn Richards, Towards a Theology of Religions (New York: Routledge, 1989); Richard W. Rousseau (ed), Christianity and the Religions of the East: Models for a Dynamic Relationship (University of Scranton Press, 1982); John Sanders, No Other Name (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992); William Cantwell Smith, Towards a World Theology: Faith and the Comparative History of Religion (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1981); Paul R. Sponheim, Faith and the Other: A. Relational Theology (Minneapolis: Augsburg) Fortress, 1993); Walter Strolz and Hans Waldenfels (ed) Christliche Grundlagen des Dialogs mit den Weltreligionen (Freiburg: Herder, 1983); Francis A. Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church? Tracing the History of the Catholic Response (Mahwah: Paulist, 1992); Donald K. Swearer, Dialogue; The Key to Understanding Other Religions (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977); Leonard Swidler (ed), Toward a Universal Theology of Religion (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1987); After the Absolute: The Dialogical Future of Religious Reflection (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990) and Die Zukunft der Theologie: Im Dialog der Religionen und Weltanschauungen (Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 1992); George H. Tavard, The Church, Community of Salvation: An Ecumenical Ecclesiology (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992); Maurice Wiles, Christian Theology and Inter-Religious Dialogue (Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1992).8
The work of an academic pioneer in appreciation of Asian religions is assessed by Richard Schebera, Christian, Non-Christian Dialogue: The Vision of Robert C. Zaehner (Lanham: University Press of America, 1978). Recently developments are reviewed by Wayne Teasdale, "Interreligious dialogue since Vatican II: The monastic-contemplative dimension," Spirituality Today 43 (1991)p.119-133.
1. Christian-Muslim Dialogue
After the Christian-Jewish encounter, none has been more prolonged or intense than the history of Christian contacts with Islam. The three faiths and their respective communities cannot ignore the past, yet they cannot limit themselves to its paradigms and the memories of confrontations. The legacy of European colonies in Africa and Asia has brought a considerable number of Muslims to France and Britain, with the urgent need for the majority of the population to be educated for a new era of tolerance and collaboration.9 Developments in recent decades have been studied in Gerald Parsons (ed), The Growth of Religious Diversity: Britain from 1945. Volume I Traditions (London: The Open University- Routledge, 1993). Migration to other nations for a variety of reasons makes the growth of understanding imperative in these settings as well. Maurice Borrmans offered Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and Muslims (Mahwah: Paulist, 1990) on behalf of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue in 1981, with a bibliography that can be updated by referring to Encounter (a monthly) and Islamochristiana (annual), published by the Pontifical Institute of Arabic and Islamic Studies (Viale di Trastevere 89, 00153 Rome, Italy). A more recent discussion in light of the Council's work is given by Thomas Michel, "Christian-Muslim dialogue in a changing world," Theology Digest 39 (1992) p.303-320. Islam's encounter with other world religions is presented by a series of papers in the Journal of Dharma 19 (#4-1994). Michael Kosegi and J. Gordon Mehon (ed), Islam in North America: A Sourcebook (New York: Garland, 1992) offer studies on areas where Muslims from many nations will soon be a minority larger than the Jewish communities in the United States and Canada.
2. Christian-Hindu Dialogue
Many Jews and Christians can benefit from the reminder that the biblical heritage blossomed in an Asian context. The first of two volumes by Samuel Hugh Moffett, under the title A History of Christianity in Asia (San Francisco: Harper, 1992) moves from "Beginnings to 1500." This portrays the spread of Christian communities from Asia Minor to Persia, India and across central Asia to China. Stephen Neill has sketched A History of Christianity in India (Cambridge University Press, 1984) in one tome, whereas Hogald Grafe and others have extensive detail in the multi-volume (Bangalore: Church History Association of India, 1990).
In the centuries of empire-building by Portugal, France and Britain, Indians who espoused Hindu, Buddhist or Jain teachings were usually regarded simply as idolaters. The courage Mohandas K. Gandhi showed in facing the limitations of people belonging to Indian spiritualities while building on their strengths was a key contribution in opening Christians to another view. Eric J. Sharpe has reviewed this history in Faith Meets Faith: Some Christian Attitudes to Hinduism in the 19th and 20th Centuries (London, 1977). This is complemented by Wesley Ariarajah, Hindus and Christians: A Century of Protestant Ecumenical Thought (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991). J. Moffitt discussed "Hinduism and Christianity" in the New Catholic Encyclopedia Supplementary Volume 16 (1967-74)p.208-209, following his essay "Christianity confronts Hinduism" in Theological Studies 30 (1969) p.207-224. Klaus Klostermaier draws attention to recent work in "Hindu-Christian dialogue," D.E.M. p.459-461. Of course, each religious and spiritual movement in India is presented at length (with bibliographies) in the Encyclopedia of Religion edited by Mircea Eliade. The Journal of Dharma (Bangalore) often devotes a section to Hinduism in its study of a given theme. "Hindu Encounter with World Religions" is the topic for volume 19 (#2-1994). At the University of Calgary, Canada, Professor Harold Coward is editor of the Hindu-Christian Studies Bulletin. His Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters was published by Orbis Books in 1989. Other studies include Bede Griffiths, The Cosmic Revelation; The Hindu Way to God (Springfield, Ill.: Templegate, 1983). Leo Borelli sketches recent developments in "Jesus Christ and Hinduism," American Benedictine Review 46 (1995)p.53-72.
The provocative approach of one Catholic theologian has been evaluated in Kana Mitra's Catholicism-Hinduism. Vedantic Investigations of Raimundo Panikkar's Attempt at Bridge Building (1987). There is further discussion of his work in Charles Fu and Gerhard Spiegler (ed), Religious Issues and Interreligious Dialogues (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1989)
Do the claims of Hinduism and Christianity lead to each excluding the other? Michael von Bruck, The Unity of Reality; God, God-Experience, and Meditation in the Hindu-Christian Dialogue (Mahwah: Paulist, 1991) has dealt with the basic questions about God and the Absolute Braham in a way that fosters prayer and dialogue between the communities.
The Sikh community is widespread as a minority in Britain and North America. It has been studied by W. Owen Cole and Piard Singh Sambhi, Sikhism and Christianity: A Comparative Study (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993).
3. Christian-Buddhist Dialogue; Japan and China
According to Eusebius of Caesarea (263-339) in The History of the Church Book V. 10.2, Christian contacts with India and Buddhism may be traced back to Pantaenus, who taught before 190 at Alexandria, where Clement was his disciple. Scholars have been fascinated by the contacts between ideas espoused by Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) and Buddhist thought. His pertinence for dialogue is discussed in Rudolf Haubst and Klaus Kremer (ed) Weisheit und Wissenschaft: Cusanus im Blick auf die Gegenwart (Trier: Paulinus Verlag, 1992).
The writings of Thomas Merton and his death in Bangkok did much to focus the attention of North Americans on Christian-Buddhist dialogue. The field of "Buddhist Studies" is surveyed by Lewis R. Lancaster in the Encyclopedia of Religion (volume 2,p.554-560). John B. Cobb, Jr., Beyond Dialogue: Toward a Mutual Transformation of Christianity and Buddhism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982) and Roger Corless and Paul F. Knitter(ed), Buddhist Emptiness and Christian Trinity: Essays and Explorations (Mahwah: Paulist, 1990) explore a number of themes at length. See also Paul Ingram, The Modern Buddhist-Christian Dialogue: Two Universalistic Religions in Transformation (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1987); Paul Ingram and Frederick Streng (ed) Buddhist-Christian Dialogue: Mutual Renewal and Transformation (Honolulu: University Hawaii Press, 1986). Christopher Ives (ed), Divine Emptiness and Historical Fullness: A Buddhist-Jewish-Christian Conversation with Masao Abe (Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1994); Leo Lefebvre, The Buddha and the Christ: Explorations in Buddhist and Christian Dialogue (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1993); Donald W. Mitchell, Spirituality and Emptiness: The Dynamics of Spiritual Life in Buddhism and Christianity (Mahwah: Paulist, 1991); A. Pieris, Love Meets Wisdom: A Christian Experience of Buddhism (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1988); Seiichi Yagi and Leonard Swidler, A Bridge to Buddhist-Christian Dialogue (Mahwah: Paulist, 1990); Ichiro Okumura, "Bouddhisme et mystique Chrétienne," Teresianum 42 (1991) p.475-510 focuses on a facet of the Buddhist experience that fascinates many people from the West. The Journal of Dharma will dedicate volume 20 (#2)1995) to the Buddhist encounter with world religions.
The philosophy and ethical norms drawn from the teachings of Confucius have pervaded virtually every facet of Chinese society. The contacts between Confucius scholars and Christian intellectuals has been reviewed recently by Peter K. Lee, Confucian-Christian Encounters in Historical and Contemporary Perspective (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1992). One may also consult with profit the writings of Julia Ching, Confucianism and Christianity (New York: Kodansha, 1978) and Chinese Religion (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1993). Chinese Buddhism: Aspects of Interaction and Reinterpretation by W. Pachow (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993) reviews the history of Buddhist philosophy in China.
Jacques Gernet, China and the Christian Impact (Cambridge University Press, 1985) investigates the Chinese reactions to Christianity from the 16th century to modern times. Alan Hunter and Don Rimmington (ed.) have collected studies on the recent period in All Under Heaven: Chinese Tradition and Christian Life in the People's Republic of China (Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1992). Philip Wickeri, Seeking Common Ground: Protestant Christianity, the Three-Self Movement, and China's United Front (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1988) presents the drama of recent years for the various groups related to Protestantism. Recent works have been studied by Paul P. Pang, "L'incontro del Cristianesimo con la Cultura Cinese. Una reflessione storica e metodologica," Euntes Docete 47 (1994) p.297-310. The complex history of relations between the People's Republic of China and the Holy See has been studied by Sister Beatrice Leung, Sino-Vatican Relation: Problems in Conflicting Authority, 1976-1986 (Cambridge University Press, 1992).
The unique situation of the Japanese culture has been studied by Winston Davis, Japanese Religion and Society: Paradigms of Structure and Change (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992). Japan's experience of Christianity is studied by C.R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan 1549-1650 (Cambridge University Press, 1951); Neil S. Fujita, Japan's Encounter with Christianity. The Catholic Mission in Pre-Modern Japan (Mahwah: Paulist, 1991); David Reid, New Wine: The Cultural Shaping of Japanese Christianities (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1991); Kosuke Koyama, Mount Fuji and Mount Sinai: A Critique of Idols (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1984); Notto R. Thiele, Buddhism and Christianity in Japan: From Conflict to Dialogue (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987).
4. African Religions and Dialogue
A survey of "African religions" with bibliographies in the Encyclopedia of Religion (volume 1) introduces some aspects of a rich field, including "modern movements." Vinigi Grottanelli's "History of Study" sketches the development of scholarship by Europeans. While some developed an appreciation for certain philosophical insights of the Bantu and others, there was virtually no dialogue until recent decades. See the works of Benezet Bujo, African Theology in its Social Context (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1992); Rosino Gibellin (ed), Paths of African Theology (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1994); Emmanuel Martey, African Theology: Inculturation and Liberation (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1993); John S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (London: Heinemann, 1969), Concepts of God in Africa (London: SPCK 1970) and Introduction to African Religion (Portsmouth, N.H: Heinemann, 1992); Geoffrey Parrinder, African Traditional Religion (Westport: Greenwood, 1976) and John V.Taylor, The Primal Vision: Christian Presence amid African Religion (London: SCM Press, 1963).
The past has been chronicled by Elizabeth Isichei, A History of Christianity in Africa (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994); Adrian Hastings, A History of African Christianity 1950-1975 (Cambridge University Press, 1979) and Ype Schaaf, On Their Way Rejoicing: The History and Role of the Bible in Africa (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1994). Proceedings of conferences and seminars covering a great variety of issues have been collected in Edward Fashole-Luke et al. (ed), Christianity in Independent Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978). Three essays on Africa are included in William A. Dyrness (ed), Emerging Voices in Global Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994). In African Culture and the Christian Church (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1974), Aylward Shorter offered an "Introduction to Social and Pastoral Anthropology," important in developing sensitivity to the values inherent in the communities encountered by Christians.
IV. Jews in Dialogue with World Religions
Israeli scholars, the representatives of Jewish communities in Europe and North America and individual scholars have made contributions in their own regions and on the international scene. Martin Buber (1878-1965) leaves his mark on this field in several ways, which have been spelled out in detail by Maurice Friedman, Martin Buber's Life and Work (New York: E.P.Dutton, 1981 and 1983).
The work of a pioneer in the United States is subject for several essays edited by Harold Kasimov and Byron L. Sherwin, No Religion is an Island: Abraham Joshua Heschel and Inter-religious Dialogue (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1991). The third issue of SIDIC for 1994 provides other reflections on the importance of Heschel's vision and work.
The crucial importance and the practical difficulties of dialogue with Islam cannot be overstated. Sometimes the Christian community is a catalyst for Jews and Muslims to meet, see SIDIC 26 (#2-1993). A study of issues of common concern is a good foundation for beginning, as recorded in "Judaism-Christianity-Islam: facing modernity together," Journal of Ecumenical Studies (30 (1993)p.417-441. Book-length studies include: Isma'il R.al Faruqi, Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths (International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1982, second edition); Nigel Biggar et al.; Cities of Gods: Faith, Politics and Pluralism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam (Westport: Greenwood, 1986) and Gary Bretton-Granatoor and Andrea Weiss, Shalom/Salaam: A Resource for Jewish-Muslim Dialogue (New York: UAHC Press, 1993).
The Jewish presence from ancient times in India has fascinated a number of scholars. Nathan Katz and Ellen S. Goldberg, The Last Jews of Cochin: Jewish Identity in Hindu India (Columbia: University S. Carolina Press, 1993) offer a study of the Bnai Israel in South-West India. A personal odyssey is chronicled by Roger Kamenetz, The Jew in the Lotus: A Poet's Rediscovery of Jewish Identity in Buddhist India (San Francisco: Harper 1994). Anthony Fernando discussed "Jewish-Christian Buddhist dialogue" in Journal of Ecumenical Studies 23 (1986)p.659-666.
The story of Jews in China from the early Middle Ages is told by William C. White, Chinese Jews: A Compilation of Matters Relating to the Jews of K'ai-feng Fu (University of Toronto Press, 1966); Donald D. Leslie, The Survival of the Chinese Jews: The Jewish Community of Kaifeng (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1972); Michael Pollak, Mandarians, Jews, and Missionaries: The Jewish Experience in the Chinese Empire (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1980), with two collections of essays compiled by Hyman Kublin, Jews of Old China: Some Western Views (New York: Paragon Reprint, 1971); Studies of the Chinese Jews: Selections from Journals East and West (Paragon Reprint, 1971). Sidney Shapiro translated and edited Jews in Old China: Studies by Chinese Scholars (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1984).
Since the early 1980s a group of Jewish professionals has cultivated interest in relations with the People's Republic of China, under the auspices of The Sino-Judaic Institute, 232 Lexington Drive, Menlo Park, Ca. 94025. Jews in Israel who resided in China have an Israel-China Friendship Society in the Ponve Center, 13 Grusenberg Street, Tel Aviv (P.O.Box 1601), Israel. They publish the "Israel-China Voice of Friendship" and a Bulletin. A history of Israel-China relations has been written by Yitzhak Shichor. The Center of Israel and Jewish Studies at 1331 Fuxing Road (M) #32, Shanghai 200031, is directed by Professor Pan Guang. The recent entry into full diplomatic relations by Israel and the People's Republic of China will allow such work to flourish. The story of Japan and the Jews from Eastern Europe is investigated by David Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis and Jews: The Jewish Refugee Community of Shanghai, 1938-1945 (Hoboken: Ktav, 1988) and is sketched by Mary Swartz and Marvin Tokayer in "The Fugu Plan", The Jewish Directory and Almanac (ed. Ivan Tillem. New York: Pacific Press, 1984) p.245-249. The small Jewish community in Japan has found both admiration and prejudice, as shown by Isaiah Ben-Dasan, The Japanese and the Jews (New York: Weatherhill, 1981) and by David Goodman and Masanori Miyazawa, Jews in the Japanese Mind: The History and Use of a Cultural Stereotype (New York: Free Press, 1995).
Conclusion:
Even this brief survey alerts the reader to the progress as well as the challenges of interreligious dialogue over recent years. Obviously scholars must specialize in one or another area and those active in dialogue will sense the vastness and complexity of the questions they face. As Pope Paul VI noted, the key to true dialogue is "consideration and esteem for others, and understanding and kindness" (Ecclesiam Suam #79). The objectives of such dialogue include agreement to move from solitude and mutual distrust to respect and esteem, to grapple with the great truths that are basic to human life, and cooperate in activities for developing harmony and peace.10
Rev. Lawrence Frizzell D.Phil. is a priest of the Archdiocese of Edmonton, Canada. He is Director of the Institute of Judaeo-Christian Studies at Seton Hall University, New Jersey and a member of the Editorial Board of SIDIC.
1. See Gilles Kepel, La revanche de Dieu (Paris: Éditions de Seuil, 1991). The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994).
2. See J. M. Oesterreicher, The New Encounter between Christians and Jews (New York: Philosophical Library, 1986); Commentary on the Documents of Vatican II (ed. Herbert Vorgrimler. New York: Herder and Herder 1989) Volume III p.1-136, with excursuses on Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam (p.137-154). An international theological conference at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana (March 20-26, 1966) was the occasion for discussing the 16 documents of the Council. The proceedings, edited by John H. Miller, were given the title Vatican II: An Interfaith Appraisal (University of Notre Dame Press, 1966) even though the only non-Christian contributor was Rabbi Marc H. Tanenbaum, who responded to Thomas F. Stransky's reflection on the Declaration Nostra Aetate.
3. "Ecumenical movement," The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (ed. F.L. Cross and E.A. Livingston. Oxford University Press, 1974) p. 443.
4. I dealt with these issues briefly in "A Catholic theological reflection on mission," Journal of Dharma 6 (#2 -1981) p.141-150. See Martin Marty and Frederick Greenspahn (ed), Pushing the Faith: Proselytism and Civility in a Pluralistic World (New York: Crossroad, 1988).
5. See Paul Loffler, "Proselytism," DEM p.829-830; John C. Murray (ed) Religious Liberty: An End and a Beginning (New York: Macmillan, 1966); Leonard J. Swidler (ed), Religious Liberty and Human Rights in Nations and Religions (Philadelphia: Ecumenical Press, 1986). A Jewish perspective on some of these issues is found in Helga Croner and Leon Klenicki (ed) Issues in the Jewish-Christian Dialogue: Jewish Perspectives on Covenant, Mission and Witness (Ramsey: Paulist, 1979).
6. For the early centuries, see Wendy E. Helleman (ed), Hellenization Revisited: Shaping a Christian Response within the Greco-Roman World (Lanham: University Press of America, 1994), where I deal with the theme "Spoils from Egypt" as Origen's way of justifying the process of Christians borrowing from "the disciples of the world".
7. See Richard H. Seager (ed) The Dawn of Religious Pluralism: Voices from the World's Parliament of Religions, 1893 (La Salle: Open Court, 1993). Hans Küng and Karl-Josel Kuschel (ed), A Global Ethic: The Declaration of the Parliament of the World's Religions (New York: Continuum, 1993). See also Hans Küng and Karl-Josef Kuschel (ed) Weltfrieden durch Religionsfrieden (Munich: Piper, 1993).
8. See Angelo Amato, "Jesus Christ, Lord and Savior, and the Encounter with Religions. Commentary with Bibliography," Bulletin of Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue 27 (#2-1992)p.217-262.
9. See Stuart Brown, "Muslim-Christian dialogue," D.E.M. p.705-706 for a sketch of recent history. Wide-ranging surveys are offered by Byron Haines and Frank Colley (ed), Christians and Muslims Together: An Exploration by Presbyterians (Philadelphia: Geneva Press,1987) and Charles Kimball, Striving Together: A Way Forward in Christian-Muslim Relations (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1991). See also Robert Caspar, Pour un regard chrétien sur l'Islam (Paris: Centurion, 1990); Simon Jargy, Islam et Chrétienté: Les fils d'Abraham entre la confrontation et le dialogue (Geneva: Labor et Fides, 1981); John Renard, In the Footsteps of Muhammad: Understanding the Islamic Experience (Mahwah: Paulist, 1992); Henri Sanson, Dialogue Interieur avec l'Islam (Paris: Centurion, 1990); Richard W. Rousseau (ed), Christianity and Islam: The Struggling Dialogue (University of Scranton, 1985); Hans Zirker, Christentum und Islam: Theologische Verwandtschaft und Konkurrenz (Dusseldorf: Patmos, 1989).
10. See "On dialogue with unbelievers," published by the Secretariat for Unbelievers established by the Holy See in 1968. The complete text is in Austin Flannery (ed), Documents of Vatican II (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975) p.1002-14.
